Since 1995 the Intermountain Journal of Sciences (IJS) has offered a regional peer-reviewed outlet for scientists, educators, and students to submit original research, management applications, or viewpoints concerning the sciences. Original manuscripts are welcome dealing with Biological Sciences (Botany, Aquatic & Terrestrial), Environmental Sciences & Engineering, Health & Human Development, Humanities & Social Sciences, Mathematics, Statistics & Computer Science, Molecular Cellular Biology & Neurosciences, Pharmacology & Toxicology and Physical Sciences. IJS is co-sponsored by The Montana Academy of Sciences, The Montana Chapters of The American Fisheries Society and The Wildlife Society. Abstracts from presentations at annual meetings of the co-sponsoring organizations appear in the last issue of each volume if submitted by the sponsoring organization(s) for any given year. This provides a permanent record of their annual meeting proceedings that is not only available to individual subscribers and libraries but now available on line through the Montana State University Library. This library has set up a locally hosted and maintained version of Open Journal Systems (OJS) to better serve IJS and increase its reach to people of the Intermountain region and beyond. Additionally, all volumes of IJS are now being unarchived, digitized and will be made available on-line through this system as they are completed. OJS is a journal management and publishing system that has been developed by the Public Knowledge Project through its federally funded efforts to expand and improve access to research. It is an Open Access journal platform that works to disseminate and preserve scholarly research content. OJS seeks to improve both the scholarly and public quality of refereed research through its management systems, its finely grained indexing of research and the context it provides for research.
A Dead Bone’s Story - The Ecological, Biomechanical and Behavioral Approach to Assess Antler Weapon Design in Montana Elk
Sexually selected weapons are morphological adaptations that arose from strong intrasexual selection and are commonly male biased. Sexual weapons are found across multiple phyla taking on various designs for male‐male competition. While the benefits of large weapon sizes are well understood, relatively little is known about variation in weapon shape. The most common explanation for why weapons vary amongst species is changes in fighting styles. If animals experience major changes in habitat or if they change sufficiently in overall body size, then the ways that males encounter each other in a fight may change, resulting in new or different forces applied to the weapons. Extreme animal weapons, like elk antlers, push the boundaries of the possible. The largest males with antlers awkward and expensive help bulls win battles with rival males. The aim of my research is to use several approaches to understand what factors may influence elk antler design and male fighting behavior. I will (1) use field studies to describe intrasexual behaviors pre‐ and during rut to assess how males use these traits in contest and determine which portions of the antler perform as a signal or as tool; (2) 3D modeling and finite element analysis to rigorously model antler performance and relate specific components with a fighting or signaling function, (3) assess how different levels of harvest pressure across the state may influence fighting behavior and antler shapes, and lastly, (4) determine if the parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, influences male fighting behavior and antler development in Montana elk populations.
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A Portable Structure for Identifying Individual Wolverines and Lynx Using Integrated Cameras and Hair Snags (Oral and Poster Presentation)
We tested and modified the system design of camera and hair snag (C&H) monitoring stations developed by Audrey Magoun to identify individual wolverines (Magoun et al. 2011). Our methods were applied to focal species wolverine (Gulo gulo) and Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) individuals in western Montana. Our objectives were to (1) test and adapt the Magoun methodology to fit our study area and research goals and enhance overall data capture, (2) evaluate the cost‐effectiveness of the method while targeting the maximum number of recovered individual genotypes of focal species and limiting the number of analyzed genetic samples by integrating photographic analysis with the selection of the set of genetic samples for analysis, (3) experiment with the Magoun methodology as it could apply to Canada lynx, and (4) demonstrate the use of efficient individual identification (ID) to monitor health, behavior, and reproduction of focal species. We deployed 16 C&H stations across a 325 mi2 study area over 4 consecutive years and successfully identified 10 wolverine individuals (8 M, 2 F) and 4 Canada lynx individuals (3 M, 1 F). Our use of photographic analysis for individual identification and sex determination of the 14 focal species individuals was 100% consistent with genetic analysis of linked hair samples. C&H stations provide a cost‐effective and less invasive technique for detecting and monitoring individual rare meso‐carnivores in remote mountainous habitats.
Amphibian Larva Occupancy of Inland Northwest Wetlands ‐ Threat of Non‐Native Fish
Amphibians are the most endangered vertebrate taxa globally. Amphibian conservation and management strategies will benefit from understanding ecological and environmental variables that predict occupancy. We studied amphibian larvae occupancy in four ecoregions along a gradient extending from the Northern Rockies of western Montana to central Washington’s Columbia River Basin. We used classification and boosted regression trees to evaluate the performance of 32 environmental variables in ecological models predicting occupancy of over 7000 amphibian larvae of 6 of the 10 species captured in 106 wetlands. We found that classification trees and boosted regression trees used 3‐5 variables to correctly predict amphibian larvae occupancy in wetlands with relatively high accuracy (i.e., 62‐99% correct classifications) for Long‐toed Salamander (Ambystoma macrodactylum), Pacific Chorus Frog (Pseudacris regilla), Columbia Spotted Frog (Rana luteiventris), Barred Tiger Salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum mavortium), Northern Leopard Frog (Rana pipiens), and American Bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus). Qualitative models were used to describe the occurrence of the Sierra Chorus Frog (Pseudacris sierra), Western Toad (Anaxyrus boreas), Great Basin Spadefoot Toad (Spea intermontane), and Rough‐skinned Newt (Taricha granulosa) due to their limited detection in our study. Occupancy of amphibian species varied among the species but often included landscape variables such as proximity to grasslands, forested or woodland areas, streams, and species assemblage. Across three of the four ecoregions, native amphibian occupancy was negatively associated with the presence of non‐native fish. Our results suggest that nonnative fish may depress native amphibian populations in inland northwest lentic wetlands.
Assessing the Accuracy of Temperature Measurements from Reconyx Cameras
Timothy Link, Forest, Rangeland, and Fire Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID Remote cameras provide important insight into wildlife demography, ecological processes, and behavior. Cameras often have built‐in temperature sensors that output a temperature reading with every image. Which could provide valuable fine‐scale temperature data. However, no camera manufacturers report on the accuracy of temperature measurements made by their cameras, making the quality of these data unknown. We sought to 1) assess the accuracy of temperature readings made by Reconyx® cameras, and 2) determine the time constant of Reconyx cameras, i.e., the amount of time a camera takes to equilibrate with air temperature. We paired two Reconyx cameras with a weather station which collected corrected air temperature measurements in order to assess error in the field for 3 weeks. In general, camera temperatures agreed well with temperatures from the weather station, with the correlation being 0.72. Mean bias error of uncorrected temperatures was ‐0.41°C, so cameras tended to underestimate temperatures. However, the maximum daily temperature could be overestimated by as much as 20°C by cameras. Next, we performed a time constant experiment with a single camera in a still‐air environment with no shortwave radiation. In the lab setting, the camera took between 3 and 4 hours to fully equilibrate with air temperature. Given the widespread use of cameras for natural resources applications and particularly for wildlife studies, these findings suggest that temperatures can be reliable but may become less reliable when radiation loading is high or when temperatures change rapidly in a short time.
Beavers and Their Role in Riparian Restoration in Montana (Oral and Poster)
Beavers are one of the most influential species on Montana’s landscapes. In the right situations and settings, their activities can greatly enhance patch‐scale and landscape‐scale biodiversity through the creation of complex, unique floodplain habitats. Beaver dams in headwater streams can slow the progression of snowmelt, prolonging water resources later into the year to benefit both wildlife and humans. Because of these potential benefits, reestablishing beavers in areas of their former range has become the focus of international efforts to restore degraded stream systems. In recognition of the importance of beavers on the landscape, in 2023 a team of fisheries and wildlife biologists with the Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks released a white paper on the role of beavers in riparian restoration in Montana. This document covers the five major forms of beaver restoration: 1) conflict management, 2) land management changes, 3) beaver mimicry, 4) encouraging natural colonization, and 5) transplantation. The overarching goal of this document is to outline the settings and situations where beaver restoration can be implemented to achieve the benefits of beavers while discussing the limitations or pitfalls of restoration that can limit the use of these techniques. Using the white paper as a guide, this poster and presentation will highlight each of these five forms of beaver restoration and provide examples of current and future projects related to beaver restoration in Montana.
Black Bear Harvest Summaries and Harvest Sustainability in Southwest Montana from 2013‐2023
This report is a summary of black bear hunter harvest in Region 3 of Southwest Montana between 2013 and 2023 using FWP’s mandatory report database data. In the last eleven years, a total of 2,890 bears have been harvested with a mean harvest of 263 bears each year. Hunters harvested more bears on average in spring than fall. Brown‐phase bears were more commonly harvested in spring, whereas black‐phase bears were more commonly harvested in fall. In the combined seasons, hunters harvested a total of 1,151 brown phase, and 1,189 black phase bears. Non‐resident hunters harvested a higher percentage of bears during spring season and a lower percentage of bears in fall. Rifles were the most common weapon type used in harvest of bears at 81.6% of harvest. Archery, and handguns accounted for 16.3% and 1.5% of harvest respectfully. Teeth were collected for aging in 2018 and 2019, and 2021‐2023. I evaluated if bear harvest has met sustainability metrics (female harvest ≤40%, average male age ≥=4, average female age ≥6) in the region since 2013. One hunting district was close to sustainable bear harvest thresholds and will require monitoring. Bear Management Unit 319 (Bridger Mountains) met the criteria for percent female in harvest (42.7%, 95% C.I. = 38.9% ‐ 46.4%), the criteria for female age (average age at harvest is 7.0, 95% C.I. 6‐8) and average male age (4.2, 95% C.I. = 3.7 – 4.7). Confidence Intervals overlap what is considered not sustainable and should be closely monitored.
Breeding Biology and Migration Ecology of Turkey Vultures in Western Montana
In recent decades, Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura) populations have both increased and expanded northward in western North America. At our annual fall migration count site in the Bitterroot Valley of western Montana, the number of vultures seen per 100 observation hours more than tripled from an average of 174 birds in the first four years of the count (2011 to 2014) to 581 birds in the last four years (2019 to 2022). Given their recent population growth and expansion in the west, coupled with knowledge gaps in Turkey Vulture breeding biology and migration ecology, we outfitted more than 50 birds with GPS transmitters over the last five years to better understand the western subspecies of Turkey Vulture (C. a. meridionalis). We discuss our early findings from this project, including the timing, distance, and fidelity of migration routes and the difficulty in identifying and locating breeding individuals. We also touch on ecotoxicology and sources of mortality, including the second documented case of a Golden Eagle predating a Turkey Vulture.
Comparison of Beaver Dam Densities Between Drainages Open and Closed to Trapping (Poster)
Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks has implemented beaver trapping closures in 19 drainages within 11 counties throughout the state. Since beaver trapping closures were implemented, there has not been an analysis of beaver activity in these drainages, nor has there been a comparison to drainages with similar characteristics that remained open to trapping. Using the Beaver Restoration and Assessment Tool (BRAT), we identified drainages that were comparable in the amount of suitable beaver habitat but have remained open to trapping. We included information on public versus private land ownership and level of accessibility to these drainages, variables that may affect beaver dam counts and trapping pressure. We used Google Earth to conduct beaver dam counts as a measure of beaver occupancy and influence. Initial results from 12 pairs of drainages show a majority of drainages that have been closed to trapping have more beaver dams per kilometer of suitable habitat than paired drainages that have remained open to trapping, though this trend is inconsistent across the study area. Although the scope of this study does not account for other confounding factors such as disease and land use, our preliminary results suggest trapping closures may influence the impact of beavers in stream drainages in Montana. Our results can help inform biologists on where further study is needed and what actions could be taken to influence beaver populations. Our future plans are to find multiple open drainages for each closure for a more robust study.
Current Status of White‐Nose Syndrome and Bat Monitoring Efforts in Montana
White‐nose syndrome (WNS), the disease caused by the cold‐adapted fungus, Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd), has killed millions of North American bats since its detection in New York in 2006. National surveillance efforts have tracked the spread of Pd and WNS westward across North America, and in 2019, partners in Montana began collaborating on a project to assess spread and impact on Montana’s bats. This effort includes annual statewide monitoring to estimate the distribution of the fungus and disease. We conducted hibernacula surveys, live animal trapping, and pooled guano and environmental sampling in the winter and spring at hibernacula, emergence sites, and maternity roosts. We first detected Pd in eastern Montana in 2020, followed by the disease, WNS, in 2021. In 2023, we surveyed 31 sites; nine sites were Pd‐positive and four were confirmed/suspected positive for WNS, including two of the state’s largest known hibernacula for Myotis species. To date, Pd has been detected in four species across 16 counties within Montana. WNS has been documented in three species within six of those counties. While we documented the continued spread of Pd and WNS, we have yet to detect either in the western‐most portion of the state, including west of the Continental Divide. This effort, coupled with annual acoustic monitoring, as part of the North American Bat Monitoring Program to assess bat occupancy and activity, will inform decisions related to management and conservation strategies, including potential use of treatments specific to WNS or ecological approaches toward offsetting the costs of disease. ©
Effects of Timber Harvest and Wildfire Disturbance on Grizzly Bear Space Use in the Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem
Timber harvest and wildfire disturbance can have long‐term effects on wildlife habitat. Studies have demonstrated both positive and negative effects of forest disturbance on grizzly bears. Balancing grizzly bear conservation and managing forest disturbances is a complex and dynamic challenge for land managers. Research on the effects of timber harvest and wildfire disturbance on grizzly bears can aid in developing strategies that balance species conservation and forest management objectives. Using GPS data from grizzly bears in Montana’s Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem (NCDE), we aim to understand how grizzly bears respond to forest disturbance. We hypothesize that grizzly bears use forest disturbance but that factors such as access to foods, security, and cover influence grizzly bear space use in and around disturbance patches. Our long‐term dataset (24 years) for collared grizzly bears and the NCDE’s detailed records of timber harvests and wildfires provide a unique opportunity to study these effects for a range of disturbance conditions.
Evaluating Citizen Science Mountain Goat Ground Counts using Gps‐Collared Goats in Southwest Montana
Accurate wildlife population counts ensure sustainable harvest rates. This is particularly important for mountain goats as they are challenging to count and susceptible to over‐harvest. We evaluated a citizen‐science ground counting method to obtain minimum counts and population estimates for mountain goats in the Bridger Mountains, southwest Montana. From 2017 through 2023, the Rocky Mountain Goat Alliance and Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks (FWP) partnered to perform 5 ground‐based surveys. Surveys occurred by strategically posting volunteers at the same day and time throughout goat habitat within the mountain range. We hosted mandatory training sessions before each survey, where volunteers were taught how to identify mountain goats by age and sex and how to accurately record required data. After the survey, FWP evaluated sightings using an algorithm considering time, location, and group size/composition to eliminate duplicates. Detection rates were evaluated during two surveys (2022 and 2023) using information gained from 14 GPS‐collared mountain goats. The presence of collared animals during the surveys allowed FWP to evaluate whether observers detected the marked animals and estimate the total population. We then employed mark‐resight population estimates and estimated the percentage of the total population observed. Observers saw 77% of collared goats in 2022 and 83% of collared goats in 2023. Mark‐resight estimates of the total population were 121 in 2022 and 124 in 2023. Results suggest that ground counts can be a replicable and informative means to survey mountain goats.
Evaluating Community Assembly using Species Niche Strategies Within a Multispecies Occupancy Modeling Framework
Identifying species according to the type and flexibility of their niche strategies may afford ecologists a way to predict how species are structured within their communities. Small mammal communities offer an ideal study system to test relationships between species niche strategies and bottom up (habitat) influences on assembly. Most North American small mammals belong to a single species‐rich taxonomic order (Rodentia), with a wide range of physiological and behavioral adaptations to various terrestrial environments. They often occur in multi‐species communities where both interspecific competition and resource limitations may influence occupancy and abundance. The transition from the short‐ and mixed‐grass prairie (High and Northwest Great Plains) to the sagebrush steppe (Wyoming and Great Basins) supports a gradient of abiotic and biotic conditions that facilitate the establishment of variable small mammal communities. Using multispecies occupancy models we evaluated the impact the grasslandsagebrush gradient and species niche strategies have on species richness and community assembly. Species richness is an essential measurement of biodiversity and vital towards evaluating community health with species declining globally. Using a combination of bottom up and species biological strategies within a framework that requires only presence/absence for species can be an advantageous method for monitoring ecosystem health and community persistence.
Evaluating Density‐Weighted Connectivity of Black Bears in Glacier National Park with Spatial Capture‐Recapture Models
Recent spatial‐capture recapture (SCR) models provide a framework to formally connect inference about individual movement, connectivity, and population density, but few studies have applied this approach to empirical data to support connectivity planning. We used 924 genetic detections of 598 American black bears (Ursus americanus) from 2004 with SCR ecological distance models to simultaneously estimate density, landscape resistance to movement, and population connectivity in Glacier National Park northwest Montana, USA. The mean density estimate was 16.08 bears/100 km2 (95% CI = 12.52 – 20.6) for females and 9.27 bears/100 km2 (95% CI = 7.70 – 11.14) for males. Density increased with forest cover for both sexes. For male black bears, density decreased at higher grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) densities. Drainages, valley bottoms, and riparian vegetation decreased landscape resistance to movement for male and female bears. For males, forest cover also decreased estimated resistance to movement, but the US2 transportation corridor bisecting the study area strongly increased resistance to movement presenting a barrier to connectivity. Densityweighed connectivity surfaces highlighted areas important for population connectivity that were distinct from areas with high potential connectivity. For black bears in Glacier and surrounding landscapes, consideration of both vegetation and valley topography could inform the placement of underpasses along the transportation corridor in areas characterized by both high population density and potential connectivity. Our study demonstrates that the SCR ecological distance model can provide biologically realistic, spatially explicit predictions to support connectivity planning across large landscapes.
Evaluating the Motus Wildlife Tracking System for Monitoring Ground‐Dwelling Birds
The Motus Wildlife Tracking System is a collaborative research network that uses Automated radio telemetry arrays to record transmitter detections remotely and distribute the data to researchers through the Motus database system. While Motus technologies have successfully been used to track the phenology and large‐scale habitat use of migrating birds via Motus towers placed strategically worldwide, they have not yet been assessed for use in evaluating fine‐scale space use, particularly of ground‐dwelling birds. Our goal is to estimate the accuracy, precision, detection rates, and effective detection distances of Motus compatible transmitters relative to standard VHF transmitters. We completed 222 triangulations of transmitters using handheld Motus compatible and VHF radio telemetry technologies during the 2022 and 2023 field seasons. We fit a preliminary set of generalized linear (GLM) models to 180 successful triangulations. The data supported strong effects of transmitter type on all measures of transmitter performance metrics. Estimated location precision was greater for the Motus compatible technology at short distances but VHF technology was more precise at farther observer distances. Estimated locations of the Motus compatible technology were more accurate than VHF technology across all observed distances. However, the maximum observable distance of VHF transmitters was nearly twice that of the Motus compatible transmitters. Our results have important implications for monitoring of ground‐dwelling birds, including the space use and habitat selection of reintroduced sharp‐tailed grouse in western Montana.
Evaluation of Sex and Age Identification Characteristics in Sharp-tailed Grouse (Poster)
Sharp‐tailed Grouse are a popular upland game bird for sportsman and a species with a long history of population reintroductions and augmentations. Center rectrices have been used as a dominant sex identifier for Sharp‐tailed Grouse with an accuracy rate of 85% to 93%. When managing small populations or reintroduction efforts for a species, error rates as small as 7% could still have significant consequences when calculating population parameters. Often sex and age characteristics are reevaluated for a species, or experts are tested on this knowledge for accuracy. Our objectives are (1) to evaluate the specific measurements or characteristics present to determine sex and age in Sharp‐tailed Grouse and (2) to develop a more detailed key to aid in effective management and monitoring of Sharp‐tailed Grouse populations. To evaluate these characteristics, we will test wildlife professionals at the Montana Chapter Annual Conference on sex and age of Sharp‐tailed Grouse using harvested feathers and wings. Identification data from professionals will be compared against genetic results of the grouse samples. Following the comparative analysis, feather characteristics will be evaluated and an identification key will be developed and tested on a group of non‐experts. Creating thorough tools towards proper sex criteria will strengthen adaptive management for Sharp‐tailed Grouse in the future.
Examining Influences on Capture Probability of Migrating Raptors (Poster)
Throughout North America, researchers operate annual fall trapping stations to assess patterns, health, and quantities of migrating diurnal raptors. In Montana, Raptor View Research Institute has been trapping diurnal raptors during fall migration along Montana’s Continental Divide since 2004. While we observe over 1,000 raptors migrating each fall, we typically only capture around 150 individuals per season. Examining factors that determine our trapping success would not only provide us with a greater knowledge of these sensitive apex predators but also increase our capture yield. We investigate a variety of temporal, environmental, and species specific variables to determine what factors influence capture probability, including time of year, weather and the age and sex of individual raptors. We share our findings for some of our most frequently caught species, including Golden Eagles, Red‐tailed Hawks, Coopers Hawks, and Sharp‐shinned Hawks, and offer insight into factors that could affect capture rates at migration stations.
Golden Eagle Migration Pathways Along the Continental Divide in Alberta and Montana (Poster)
The number of Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) counted annually at fall migration sites in western North America has been declining in recent years. This decline in migration count numbers could be attributed to factors such as lead poisoning, habitat loss, declines in prey species, and climate change. Given widespread population declines, efforts to continue monitoring population trends are needed. Prior to 1987, Golden Eagle migration corridors through Glacier National Park (GNP) were unknown. In response, researchers conducted three years of fall and spring migration counts, averaging 1973 Golden Eagles in the fall. As a result, GNP established the Mount Brown raptor migration site to monitor the long‐term migration trends of Golden Eagles and other migratory raptor species. The Mount Brown hawk watch site was officially established in 2018 and is situated between two other fall hawk watch sites along the Continental Divide with long term datasets: Mount Lorette and the Bridger Mountains. All three migration sites are along the primary flyway for migrating Golden Eagles; however, count numbers can vary widely among sites on similar dates. In this poster, we analyzed Golden Eagle count data among three migration sites and inferred potential eagle flyways along the Continental Divide from Alberta to Montana. We used count data during peak fall migration at each site from 2020 through 2023 to synthesize and visualize potential Golden Eagles flight paths across the flyway, examine the similarities and differences of the results, and propose further research questions.
Greater Sage Grouse Ecology in the Upper Big Hole Valley
We used greater sage grouse (GSG) movement data generated from GPS‐marked hens 2018 – 2022 to increase our understanding of GSG ecology within the Upper Big Hole Valley (UBHV), define seasonal habitat use and characterize the UBHV population’s genetic contribution to the wider GSG population in SW Montana. We used movement data to define seasons that represent biologically meaningful separations. We calculated the mean net displacement of all individuals from their point of capture over the entire calendar year to determine consolidated changepoints in net displacement, i.e. breaks between periods of relative movement consistency. Changepoints suggested the following seasons specific to the UBHV GSG population: (1) 2/13–4/13 = spring staging & migration; (2) 4/14–7/05 = breeding/nesting/early brood rearing; (3) 7/05–10/29 = late brood rearing & fall staging; (4) 10/29–11/14 = fall migration; (5) 11/14–02/12 = winter. We used these seasonal dates for subsequent analyses of habitat and landownership use. Lastly, we examined the genetics of the GSG population in the UBHV relative to within the study area and across SW Montana. The leks in the UBHV are part of the Southwestern‐North subpopulation identified by Cross et al. (2017) and the greater Central Rockies subpopulation identified by Oyler‐McCance et al. (2022). Per‐locus and overall genetic diversity within the UBHV population indicates genetic diversity has been maintained despite the UBHV’s peripheral location relative to the overall species range and within the UBHV we found finescale genetic structure reflective of lek philopatry.
Human Dimensions of Wolverine Perspectives and Attitudes of Backcountry Winter Recreationists (Poster)
With their young being born and subsequently raised beneath the snow’s surface each winter, the wolverine (Gulo gulo) is a species whose ecology is deeply tied to snow and its persistence on the landscape. Across the Northwest, areas of deep, long‐lasting snow are not only important to the wolverine, but to the region’s backcountry recreationists. Studies have shown both wolverine behavior and landscape occupancy to be impacted by motorized, and nonmotorized winter recreation (i.e., backcountry skiing and snowmobiling). While in recent years more work has been done to evaluate the impact of winter recreation on wolverine ecology, very little has been done in the way of evaluating the human dimensions of this relationship. As climate change continues to alter the winter landscapes of the Northwest and threatens to diminish and concentrate the region’s winter snow packs, it is of utmost importance that we strive not only to understand the ecological consequences of overlap between wolverines and winter recreationists, but also the attitudes of these recreationists towards wolverines and their conservation. As the North American wolverine has just been granted threatened status under the Endangered Species Act (ESA), improving our understanding of public perceptions of the species will play a vital role in species management.
Impact of the Presence of Pseudogymnoascus Destructans on Activity of Montana’s Bat Species
In 2019 the pathogenic fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd) which causes the disease White‐Nose Syndrome (WNS) was first detected in Montana. In 2020 Montana began surveys following guidance from the North American Bat Monitoring Program (NABat) to determine the status and inform management of bat species within the state. This effort uses acoustic recording units to record echolocation calls of bats at up to four sites within 10 by 10 km cells. Over the past four years, partners have surveyed 1476 sites within 122 cells. Over 3 million calls have been recorded representing 13 of Montana’s 15 species. Making inference about the trend of WNS impacted species using counts of recorded calls is difficult as calls may represent one or many bats. The large amount of data increases reliance on identifications suggested by the classification software but similarity between calls made by different species can reduce confidence in the suggested species. To address these challenges and minimize risk of misclassification we used a thresholding approach based on characteristic frequency to identify calls made by WNS susceptible species. These calls were then used as a response variable in a Bayesian, hierarchical, spatially misaligned regression model that included environmental and geographics factors as covariates, and allowed for estimation of the impact of fungus presence on the log‐mean bat relative activity. Our results indicate that fewer calls from WNS species are recorded in areas where Pd has been detected, confirming that despite differences in overwintering ecology of bats within the West, declines are likely.
Improving Black‐Billed Cuckoo Monitoring in Montana
Understanding species distribution and ecology are critical first steps towards biodiversity conservation. While monitoring common, conspicuous species can be relatively straight forward, collecting sufficient data for rare and cryptic species presents unique challenges. Black‐billed cuckoos (Coccyzus erythropthalamus) are an example of a regionally rare, cryptic, and data deficient species in Montana. Due to their infrequent vocalizations, preference for dense vegetation, and cryptic plumage, this species is difficult to detect using the conventional method of in‐person playback surveys. Especially when applied in Montana, these surveys are resource and time intensive. In this study, we compare the conventional method with non‐invasive passive acoustic monitoring paired with machine learning classification. From 2021‐2023, we conducted playback surveys and deployed autonomous recording units at sites with historic cuckoo records. In 2023, we created an improved machine learning model to detect multiple call types from acoustic data. We present preliminary results of the effectiveness of each method based on cost, survey effort, and detections. This research tests an application of non‐invasive monitoring methods for rare species of local conservation concern. Additionally, results will improve the efficiency of monitoring as practitioners in Montana create a long‐term species monitoring and conservation plan.
Investigating Non‐Invasive Survey Methods for Studying Harlequin Ducks on Their Breeding Grounds in the Northern Rockies
Long‐term monitoring of Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) (HADU) in Montana, Idaho, and Alberta has documented population declines on their breeding grounds leading to broad concerns about population status in the Northern Rockies. Additionally, biologists have struggled to monitor the status and trends in the Northern Rockies breeding population due to their rarity and the ruggedness of their habitat. Previous methods have primarily relied on direct, in‐person observations. However, results from these ground‐based foot surveys are highly variable owed to factors outside the observer’s control such as late spring flooding which can result in HADU nests being washed out and females leaving breeding streams earlier. This can affect detections of broods causing false negatives on potential breeding streams. Thus, there is a critical need to better understand the efficacy of existing methods and to explore other survey strategies to assess HADU population status and trends. We are comparing detection probabilities of eDNA, game camera, and ground‐based foot surveys to determine their relative efficacy in detecting HADU on streams. Given that HADU breeding habitat is highly variable and complex, we are evaluating these methods as related to habitat covariates. During 2022 and 2023, we visited ten streams two times each season and tested our three methods over three days. We were able to detect HADU during the late incubation and the brood rearing season using all three methods. We will discuss field techniques and preliminary results of our efforts.
Investigating Raptor Perception of Snowshoe Hare Coat Color, Camouflage, and Mismatch
Research around climate‐change induced coat color mismatch in seasonally polymorphic species has largely focused on mismatched animals’ capacity to adapt to new conditions and avoid associated fitness loss. While snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) are known to face increased mortality during periods of mismatch, there is little understanding of which of their many predators contribute to this increased predation. Using experiments with falconry‐trained goshawks (Accipiter atricapillus), we investigate raptor perception in relation to camouflage and mismatch using lures and model hares. In addition to testing effects of mismatch on hunting ability, we also investigate these effects in relation to movement and habitat structure. Preliminary results indicate that mismatch influences raptors’ perception of stationary models, but not moving targets. Additional effects of habitat structure are also evident. Knowledge of both predator and prey perception and behavior is necessary to form a complete understanding of shifting trophic interactions under climate change. ©
Lessons from Wyoming Mule Deer Herds on the Effectiveness of Recreational Harvest in Controlling Chronic Wasting Disease
Recreational harvest is a commonly discussed and periodically used strategy for controlling chronic wasting disease (CWD) in cervid populations across the United States andCanada. Evaluating the efficacy of this strategy, however, is not straightforward, due to time lags, feedbacks, and confounding variables. For example, correlations between harvest rates and CWD prevalence may be due to the causal role of hunting on CWD or the reverse (e.g., the impact of CWD on harvest rates or quotas). We analyzed two decades of surveillance data (2000 – 2022) from 10 Wyoming mule deer herds to estimate the effects of harvest on CWD prevalence, using statistical approaches informed by causal inference theory to better control for feedbacks and confounding variables. We found that herds with consistently high harvest pressure across 20 years had significantly lower CWD prevalence. Our models predicted that harvesting 25% of adult males per year across 20 years would result in a prevalence of <10%, whereas if only 15% of males were harvested in each year, prevalence would increase to nearly 30%. Moreover, shifting the relative harvest pressure within a herd over a shorter period (e.g., three years) altered subsequent CWD prevalence, albeit to a smaller degree. Although high harvest is unlikely to completely eradicate CWD, our analysis suggests that maintaining hunting pressure on adult males is an important tactic for slowing CWD epidemics within Western mule deer herds. Our study also provides guidance for future analyses of longitudinal surveillance data, including the importance of demographic data and appropriate time lags.
Linking Prey Abundance to Predator Occupancy Under Variable Winter Conditions
Linking predator and prey has been a central concept in ecology since the Lotka‐Volterra population models. The ability to link prey occupancy and abundance to the occupancy patterns of predators has been something that has largely eluded ecologists, but is a needed concept given the vast utility of occupancy models and joint species distribution models. We present some of the first examples of linking single visit surveys intended to estimate prey abundance (snowshoe hare) to that of repeat visit forest carnivore occupancy surveys (camera trap surveys) at different spatial scales via Bayesian hierarchical modeling and species interaction factors. Our results show strong links between snowshoe hare abundance and the occupancy patterns of fisher, coyote and bobcat. Further, we demonstrate an increase in the species present in the predator guild during below average snow conditions, which is becoming more common under climate change forecasts.
Long‐Term Moose Population Trends and Consequences for Willow Condition in the Southern Absaroka‐Beartooth Wilderness
In the 1980s, agency managers were concerned about the status of willow in the southern Absaroka‐Beartooth Wilderness (ABW). Stands appeared suppressed by ungulate browsing. In response, a 36‐year effort to monitor the resident moose population and willow status was conducted. Our research summarizes these data on moose population trends and willow browsing rates and height. Our objectives are: 1) characterize moose population trends from 1985‐2021, and 2) assess whether moose population fluctuations influenced willow height. We used several indices to monitor moose relative abundance from 1985‐2021, including observations on a 177km trail transect each fall, and an 89km road transect multiple times monthly. We also assessed height and browsing rates on 179 marked willow plants each spring from 1988‐2021 and analyzed data from a willow exclosure that was read every decade since 1961. To address the influence of abiotic variables on willow growth, we included snow telemetry (SNOTEL) data as predictors of willow height in our analysis. We found that moose relative abundance exponentially declined since 1988 (‐18% annually), supporting findings from Tyers (2003) who documented a significant decrease in moose winter habitat in the ABW following the 1988 Yellowstone fires. This population decline was also correlated with reduced willow browsing. After accounting for annual precipitation, we found that willow height increased with reduced moose browsing. Our research demonstrates that the moose population decline following habitat loss in 1988 was a major contributor to willow recovery in the southern ABW, reinforcing the significance of herbivory suppression on willow. ©
Montana Bumble Bee Atlas Project ‐ Engaging Community Scientists to Fill Distribution Gaps for Declining Bumble Bees in Montana (Poster)
Bumble bees provide vital pollination services to native ecosystems and agricultural production, yet these important pollinators face an uncertain future. Nearly one‐quarter of North American bumblebee species face some degree of extinction risk. In the U.S., two species have been added to the Endangered Species Act (ESA), and several have been petitioned for listing, with positive 90‐day findings and pending Special Status Assessments (SSA). Montana is home to 4 species with pending SSAs, but existing data limit our ability to accurately assess populations or effectively manage landscapes with evidence‐based conservation measures. To address this shortfall, we will be implementing a Montana Bumble Bee Atlas in 2024. This comprehensive monitoring program will provide a baseline understanding of bumble bee populations and fill knowledge gaps in their currentdistribution, site occupancy, and habitatassociations. The project will mirror the successful bumble bee atlas projects ongoing in 15 U.S. states, which have engaged thousands of volunteer community scientists who have conduct standardized inventories over broad geographic areas and generated over 50,000 bumble bee observations since 2018. The robust dataset created from this project can inform pending SSAs and ESA decisions, be used to develop regional and state bumble bee conservation plans, and provide information for land management agencies in creating evidence‐based habitat management and restoration strategies to improve the survival and recovery of at‐risk bumble bees.
Montana Elk Winter Habitat Distribution as a Function of Winter Severity
Understanding the quality and distribution of winter habitat is an essential component of delineating the most important wildlife habitat requirements throughout the year for large ungulates. Severe winters can be an important cause of winter mortality in elk (Cervus canadensis), especially in populations that are less able to access seasonal resources without large migrations. Therefore, it is critical to study how elk respond to severe winter weather and how that response impacts the distribution of suitable habitat. In order to derive a more mechanistic understanding of elk winter habitat in Montana, we used more than 36,000 elk location points from winter aerial surveys from 2010‐2022 to build regional random forest models optimized for studying wildlife‐habitat relationships and explicitly evaluated the effects of minimum temperatures and snow cover on elk distributions and how those elements of weather influenced their selection for land cover and terrain features. These models performed very well in predicting out‐of‐sample data and we used them to create new maps of elk winter habitat in Montana. We found that minimum temperature was among the most important variables driving elk distribution in each region and that both minimum temperature and snow water equivalent interacted with shrub cover density, tree cover density, and topographic heterogeneity to determine where elk were most likely to be found. We also found that in each region, the distribution of predicted habitat varied depending on the severity of recent winter weather. In combination with explicitly mapped model prediction uncertainty, the maps our models produced provide actionable information for biologists and habitat managers across the state, and could inform future habitat management actions at landscape scales. Further, our methods may be a template for researchers and managers in other states interested in developing models of ungulate winter habitat that explicitly vary with recent weather severity.
Montana Furbearer Monitoring - A Cyclical Approach to Track Species Occupancy and Spatial Distribution
The state of Montana offers a diverse array of wildlife species including a long list of furbearers. Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks (FWP) actively monitors a number of these species on a 5‐year cycle to keep track of population level changes in occupancy and overall spatial distribution. Since 2016, FWP has deployed over 604 camera stations to monitor Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis), fisher (Pekania pennanti), marten (Martes caurina), swift fox (Vulpes velox), and wolverines (Gulo gulo) using a nested grid design based on the species average female home range size. These ongoing efforts are a part of the WAFWA multi‐species forest carnivore monitoring program conducted at a multi‐state scale. We use single‐species, single‐season occupancy modelling while considering modelled species habitat and other spatial features to estimate over‐winter (Dec 1 – April 31) occupancy and detection probabilities. The results of these projects help Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, and Washington effectively delineate and prioritize areas for future research, conservation, and management efforts in hopes for maintaining the distribution of these species across all suitable habitats.
Montanans’ Changing Attitudes Toward Wolves (2012 ‐ 2023)
Many of the fundamental objectives guiding wolf management in Montana relate to the human dimensions, including maintaining positive working relationships, increasing public acceptance of harvest, and open and effective communication to inform decisions. To measure progress on these and other objectives, FWP and UM have partnered to conduct three large surveys of Montana residents overthe past 10 years to measure people’s attitudes toward wolves, theirtolerance of the species, satisfaction with wolf management and many other social variables.Here, we report results from the 2023 survey iteration (n=3,401; margin of error=+3.7%), including longitudinal data on how Montanans’ perspectives have shifted over time andcomparisons between general residents and some distinct groups including deer/elk hunters,wolf license holders, and large landowners. Results show that tolerance of wolves on the MT landscape has increased markedly for general residents, deer/elk hunters, and landowners while remaining stable for wolf hunters. In 2023, 74% of general residents were tolerant or very tolerant of wolves, up from 41% in 2012. Tolerance of wolf hunting has remained high for most groups, but dipped slightly for general residents (71% in 2012 to 58% in 2023). Wolf trapping receives less social support with only 36% of general residents finding it tolerant or very tolerant. The presentation will review these and other descriptive statistics, along with the methods used to collect, weight, and analyze these survey data, and a discussion of how social theory may explain why we’re seeing these changes and what we might expect in the future.
Montana’s 2025 State Wildlife Action Plan Revision
State Wildlife Action Plans (SWAPs) play a critical role in prioritizing conservation for Species of Greatest Conservation Need for state fish and wildlife agencies. SWAPs identify aquatic and terrestrial Species of Greatest Conservation Need and their habitats, describe threats that impact those species and habitats, highlight conservation actions to address those threats, and outline a monitoring plan. SWAPs are submitted on a 10‐year cycle to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and are required for states to be eligible for grants through the State Wildlife Grant Program. Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks (FWP) is currently working on the third iteration of Montana’s SWAP in preparation for its release in fall of 2025. To accomplish the 2025 revision, FWP hired a SWAP coordinator, who then formed a SWAP Steering Committee to guide the revision and set up 4 internal SWAP teams (terrestrial species team, aquatic species team, habitat team, and spatial team) to help write the revision. FWP will also develop a process for soliciting feedback on plan components from external partners throughout the revision process. In this talk, we will 1) provide background information on Montana’s SWAP, 2) share Montana’s plan to complete the revision, 3) outline Montana’s proposed major revisions for the 2025 SWAP, and 4) seek input from the audience on what revisions they would find most useful in the 2025 SWAP.
Moose Abundance and Recruitment on The Blackfeet Indian Reservation and Glacier National Park
Across much of their range, moose (Alces alces) abundance and recruitment rates have been declining, including areas in and around Montana. These concerning trends have prompted wildlife managers to implement monitoring plans to assess the status of their moose populations. However, moose are often difficult to monitor given their unique behavior and ecology. Moose are relatively shy animals that rarely aggregate and exist at low densities in densely forested regions. In addition, they have no unique markings to differentiate individuals. Given these difficulties and current trends in moose populations, we used two relatively new survey methods to estimate the abundance and calf recruitment rate of moose on the Blackfeet Indian Reservation and Glacier National Park. During the summers of 2022 and 2023, we randomly placed 100 cameras across our study area. We analyzed moose detection data from our cameras using two alternative models, Space‐to‐Event and Time‐to‐Event. The Blackfeet Tribe, in conjunction with the University of Montana and Glacier National Park, will determine the efficacy of these models to estimate moose abundance and recruitment, and assess the population’s status and potential trajectory. Results obtained from this research will guide conservation strategies on the Reservation and in the Park. Suitable management strategies are crucial because the Blackfeet Tribe takes a conservative approach to moose management in the absence of baseline data. Sustainable management of moose is especially crucial as moose provide a significant source of revenue for the Blackfeet Fish and Wildlife Department through the sale of hunting permits.
Predicted Grizzly Bear Habitat in the Bitterroot Ecosystem
Many conservation actions must be implemented with limited data or scientific models. This is especially true when planning recovery efforts for extirpated populations, such as grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) within the Bitterroot Ecosystem (BE) of Idaho and Montana, where strategies for reestablishing a resident population are currently being evaluated. Here, we applied individual integrated step‐selection models developed for the nearby population in the Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem to predict movement and habitat selection in the BE. We approached simulation two ways, to predict how grizzly bears might naturally recolonize the BE, and how reintroduced bears or an established population would use the BE. Recolonizing bears used the region northeast of the BE and in the northern two thirds of the BE most heavily. Reintroduced bears used the northern two thirds of the BE along with the areas west of this most heavily. In both cases, public and private lands were important to simulated bears. These results can inform conservation decision and success of grizzly bear recovery efforts.
Reintroducing Sharp‐Tailed Grouse to Western Montana ‐ First Year of Translocations
Sharp‐tailed grouse (Tympanuchus phasianellus) historically occupied intermountain Grasslands west of the Continental Divide in Montana but were likely extirpated by the early 2000s. Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks recently began efforts to reintroduce sharp‐tailed grouse to two sites in western Montana. For prairie grouse, translocation failure rates are high, so monitoring is essential to evaluate translocation success and inform future reintroduction efforts. We monitored the dispersal movements and demography of sharp‐tailed grouse captured in east‐central Montana and translocated to the Blackfoot and Bitterroot Valleys in April – May 2023. We tracked 75 female grouse fitted with GPS‐PTT (25 grouse), VHF (26), or Motus transmitters (24) and monitored 20 nesting attempts and 9 broods. Some PTT‐tagged females made long exploratory movements following release, traveling up to 75 km from the release site. However, many birds remained within 1–5 km of the release sites or moved to properties 11–17 km from the release sites where new leks had been established. Survival was relatively low following translocation, and 100‐d post‐release survival was 0.28 (95% C.I.: 0.18 - 0.44). Survival increased following this initial period, and 200‐d post‐release survival was 0.22 (0.13 - 0.39). The nest initiation rate was high for surviving birds (0.75 for PTTtagged females), and nests were often located near newly established lek sites. Apparent nest survival (0.45) and brood survival (0.56) were similar to resident populations of sharp‐tailed grouse. Translocations and monitoring will continue through 2026, and our results will inform ongoing sharptailed grouse reintroduction efforts in western Montana.
Reinventing Ancient Human Practices: Efficacy of Livestock Guard Dogs at Keeping an Apex Predator away from People
Historic practices to reduce dangerous interactions between people, livestock, and large carnivores are returning alongside the recovery of some large carnivore populations. Emerging novel scenarios where people and carnivores interact make it important to identify nonlethal tools to reduce risk to people and facilitate coexistence. We tested an ancient practice in a novel way by placing livestock guard dogs (LGDs) at farmsteads (i.e., areas with a family home and grain bins) with chronic interactions with grizzly bears (Ursus arctos). Grizzly bears are attracted to spilled grains around storage bins, causing concern over human safety near homes. We found several lines of evidence supporting the use of LGDs to deter bears and protect people in areas where grizzly bears visit farmsteads. There were 58‐fold fewer camera detections of bears visiting farmsteads with LGDs compared to paired neighbor farmsteads that did not receive an LGD (i.e., control sites). After LGDs were deployed, there was an 87.5% reduction in bear collar locations near farms relative to before. At sites with LGDs, uncomfortable behaviors in bears increased. LGDs did not wander uncontrollably and were primarily active at night when bears were also more likely to be near farmsteads. Farmers had a positive experience using LGDs and would recommend them to others. Our results suggest LGDs can serve to protect specific locations and offer a new use of an old tool.
Rest‐Rotation Grazing and Streambank Restoration after Two Growing Seasons of Rest
In the fall of 2020, the French Creek Streambank Restoration Project was completed on the Mount Haggin Wildlife Management Area (WMA). The purpose of this project was to enhance aquatic and wildlife habitat through soft bank restoration techniques and reactivating floodplain connection. The project restored 2,350’ of streambank with excessive lateral streambank erosion and poor riparian vegetation establishment. Baseline vegetation conditions were measured in early summer of 2020 to track vegetation response across all streambanks post restoration. Following two growing seasons of complete rest, grazing occurred in the project area during the early summer (light stocking rate; 0.09AUM/hectare). Vegetation conditions along streambanks remained in excellent stable condition following the summer grazing (stability index = 9.1/10). The three‐year post‐monitoring highlights successful native, riparian vegetation establishment for willows and herbaceous understory following this grazing event. In addition, introduced graminoid establishment along the streambanks remains at significantly lowerdensities in 2023 than pre‐restoration conditions. Continued monitoring will track the effectiveness of softbank restoration techniques developed for the French Creek streambank project to increase riparian vegetation expansion and connectivity over the next two years in tandem with a rest‐rotation grazing system. Overall, rest‐rotation grazing appears suitable following a minimum of two growing seasons for this riparian setting.
Spatiotemporal Review of Montana’s Sage Grouse Habitat Mitigation Framework
In 2015, Montana established the Sage Grouse Conservation Strategy in a range‐wide effort to avoid listing of greater sage‐grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) under the Endangered Species Act. As part of this effort, Montana implemented a compensatory mitigation system for sage grouse habitat in 2019. Since then, Montana has experienced an almost 6% statewide human population growth rate, likely increasing the wildland‐urban interface within sage‐grouse habitat. This ever‐increasing complexity across the landscape poses unique challenges for the Sage Grouse Habitat Conservation Program (Program) charged with conserving sage grouse habitat to maintain sage‐grouse populations. The development and application of the Habitat Quantification Tool (HQT) provides a non‐biased, science‐based, and stakeholder‐supported process to quantify sage‐grouse functional habitat within the compensatory mitigation framework. The HQT is an integrated deterministic, state‐based, geospatial model. Using biophysical sage‐grouse habitat attributes, the HQT establishes a statewide baseline of existing functional habitat represented by the HQT Base map. Over time, the HQT Base map is updated with new data, including impacts from new projects (both development and conservation) implemented across the landscape. By reviewing changes in functional habitat estimated with various iterations of the HQT Base map, the Program can use this assessment in conjunction with other metrics to determine whether Montana is meeting its goal of no net loss (net gain preferred) of sage‐grouse habitat. Using adaptive management, the Program can assess the HQT’s accuracy and revise the HQT and associated Base map through time based on new available science and provide additional recommendations for improving the effectiveness of the sage‐grouse mitigation system.
Swift Fox Census Survey in Northeast Montana
Swift foxes (Vulpes velox) were surveyed across an area of 11,420 km2 on the prairies of northeast Montana from October 2022 – March 2023. The purpose of this survey was to determine changes in relative distribution, estimate population within the census area, and compare those results to previous census findings. Live trapping and remote camera methods were used to collect data in the field. Surveys were conducted in 74 townships across the census area. Township occupancy analyses were used for camera data and live trap data were analyzed using mark‐recapture estimation. Live traps detected swift foxes at 36 of 45 townships, which resulted in 146 captures of 91 unique individuals. Camera traps detected swift foxes in 16 out of 29 townships, which resulted in 47 visits. Incidental canid observations during the survey period yielded 35 coyotes, 30 red foxes, and 109 swift foxes. It was not possible to identify individuals from camera traps or incidental observations, so some visits could be the same individual. Preliminary results for relative distribution show a slight western expansion within the census area. Comparing live trap results to previous census surveys we see a significantly higher catch per unit effort in 2022 than in 2014, 2005, and 2000. Theseresults indicate a potential increase in the northeast Montana population of swift fox. Recent swift fox reintroductions bordering the census area could be a source of inflation in the population estimate. A comprehensive population survey will be conducted in Canada and Montana in upcoming years.
The Effect of Precipitation Accumulation on Bull Elk Harvest in The Big Hole Area of Montana
This study examined the relationship between bull elk harvest in southwestern Montana and precipitation during Montana’s general big game hunting season. My hypothesis was that increased precipitation during November would correlate to higher bull elk harvest. I used harvest data gathered from Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks’ hunter check stations located to intercept hunters from several hunting districts surrounding the upper Big Hole Valley from Jackson to Divide, MT. I censored the harvest data to only include bull elk aged ≥2.5 years old since bulls younger than this are often still associated with cow‐calf groups and not with bachelor herds. This study provides insight into the intricate relationship between weather patterns and bull elk harvest and suggests that factors beyond precipitation influence elk harvest in the Big Hole area.
The Influence of Social Identity on Montanans’ Attitudes Toward Grizzly Bears
Wildlife conservation and management depends on social support, often measured using attitudinal scales on surveys. In MT and elsewhere, human dimensions researchers have observed differences in wildlife‐related attitudes between groups, such as hunters and nonhunters. Less studied is whether social identities associated with these groups might help explain how these attitudes form and why they differ. This presentation reports results from a structural equation model analyzing mail‐back survey data from MT residents (n=1,758) to test how social identities affected the relationship between experiences with grizzly bears and attitudes toward the species. Our final model (r2=0.51) showed the hunter identity magnified negative effects of ‘vicarious’ property damage (hearing of others’ property damage) on attitudes toward grizzly bears (β=‐0.381 ± 0.203 [95% CI], p<0.001) and species acceptance (β=‐ 0.571 ± 0.040, p<0.001). These results demonstrate that in‐group social interactions among hunters are the primary driver of hunters’ attitudes toward grizzlies. Similarly, group dynamics among non‐hunters may simultaneously lead non‐hunters to disregard out‐group members’ negative experiences with these bears. Social identity is a powerful social force in myriad contexts and the patterns we observed here suggest wildlife conservation is no exception. Although polarization between hunters and non‐hunters is currently low and overall attitudes toward grizzly bears in Montana are generally positive, differential experiences between these groups may exacerbate future divisions, particularly if negative encounters with grizzlies become more frequent. We conclude our presentation with suggestions for managers and conservationists hoping to avoid identity‐related polarization with respect to grizzly bears and other wildlife species.
The Little Belt Mountains Wild Sheep Restoration Effort
Montana’s Bighorn Sheep Conservation Strategy, published in 2010, calls for Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks (MFWP) to establish “new viable and huntable populations [of bighorn Sheep”. In 2020, MFWP began one of the first restoration efforts in over 20 years in the Little Belt Mountains of central Montana in partnership with numerous organizations, local landowners, the Wild Sheep Foundation, and the Montana Woolgrower’s Association. In Decembers 2020 and 2021, FWP captured 49 and 33 bighorn sheep, respectively (8 rams, 74 ewes), from the Missouri River Breaks sheep herd and released them in the eastern Little Belts. All 82 sheep were fitted with GPS collars to collect locations every 13 hours, while providing mortality notifications as well as a geo‐fence to help detect comingling with domestic sheep. With extensive monitoring, we documented lamb production in 2021 and 2022. During the first year, we documented 20 mortalities (15 caused by mountain lion) and between the second release and April 2022, an additional 7 ewes were killed by mountain lions—most from the second (or newer), ‘naïve’ cohort. In spring 2022, we documented several sheep sick with or that had died from pneumonia. Having collars on all adult animals in the population provided a unique opportunity to monitor and track the outbreak and mortalities as they occurred. Sixteen sheep succumbed to pneumonia or predation (while symptomatic) since April 2022, along with 16 other (mostly predation) mortalities. However, observations of previously sick animals suggest some may have recovered. To date, 13 collared sheep (including one ram) and at least eight uncollared sheep (lambs born in 2021, 2022, and 2023) are still alive. We will continue to monitor surviving sheep for symptoms and determine next steps in the coming year.
Wolf Predation on Elk Populations in Yellowstone National Park in Relation to Climate Change
Climate change drove ecosystem change within Yellowstone National Park over the past five decades (Vucetich 2005). The wolf population within Yellowstone National Park grew due to warm weather patterns favoring wolf (Canis lupus) reproduction success rates. Elk (Cervus canadensis nelson) interactions with wolves became more frequent leading to increased elk mortality. As elk are a keystone species of the Yellowstone ecosystem, increased mortality led to holistic ecosystem change. Elk calf survival rates fell 35% since the introduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park (Christianson 2014). Cow elk mortality increased by 37% in areas of the park known to have wolf pack dens near elk herds. Researchers expected population decreases in elk herds after wolf reintroduction, however the rate of decline of the Yellowstone elk population outpaced predictions.This research hypothesized that wolf predation on elk within Yellowstone National Park increased due to climate change causing wolf population growth. While research has addressed that wolf population growth occurred due to warming weather and elk population declines occurred due to wolf reintroduction within Yellowstone National Park, no research has addressed the relationship linking climate change to elk mortality from wolf predation.